[www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov]

The results of the systematic review suggest that almond-based diets can promote the growth of short-chain fatty acid (SCFAs)-producing gut microbiota. Furthermore, the meta-analysis showed that almond-based diets were effective in significantly lowering (p < 0.05) glycated haemoglobin and body mass index (BMI) in patients with type 2 diabetes.

The biological mechanisms responsible for the outcomes observed in this review in relation to reduction in glycated haemoglobin and BMI may be based on the nutrient composition of almond and its biological effects [37]. When compared to other nuts, it has been reported that almonds have the highest levels of fibre, monounsaturated and polyunsaturated fats, flavonoids, phytosterols, and phenolic acids [5,37]. Almonds also have a low glycaemic index [5] and almond-based diets have been shown to modulate gut microbiota dysbiosis and promote the production of GLP-1 in patients with type 2 diabetes [14].

Nuts, including almonds, are rich in energy density and high in fat, therefore, the greater fat availability could lead to reduced gastric emptying and increased satiety [5,14].

Another area of interest is the high soluble fibre and unsaturated fatty acid content of almonds [6]. According to Huo et al. [6], unsaturated fatty acids have been reported to promote the movement of glucose receptors to the cell surface and this could enhance insulin sensitivity. The role of polyunsaturated fatty acids on insulin sensitivity may be based on the fatty acid composition of the cell membrane, which relies on the fatty acid composition of the diet and regulates insulin action [44]. Kien et al. [45] suggested that a possible mechanism of dietary fatty acids in reducing the risk of insulin resistance may be due to the presence of a high level of unsaturated fatty acids in the cell membrane that could influence the physical properties, including plasticity, which promotes the movement of glucose receptors to the cell surface. It has also been shown that skeletal muscle insulin resistance due to obesity or dietary fatty acids may result from defective mitochondrial oxidation of fatty acids, which could lead to the accumulation of ceramides that may inhibit insulin signalling [45]. In addition, a high saturated fatty acid level of the membrane phospholipids increases insulin resistance [44].

Haag and Dippenaar [46] noted that the high saturated fat content of the cell membrane may lead to rigid and unresponsive membranes, while membranes that are high in unsaturated fatty acids promote fluidity and responsiveness. Therefore, the polyunsaturated content and omega-3/omega-6 ratio in the muscle and fat membranes are of significant importance in the aetiology of insulin resistance [46]. Furthermore, fatty acid-derived entities such as long chain acyl-CoA (coenzymes) may impact negatively on insulin mediated glucose transport and disrupt the insulin signalling cascade [46]. These findings were confirmed in randomised controlled trials in overweight individuals conducted by Kahleova et al. [47], who found that fat quantity and quality were related to body weight and body composition, insulin secretion, and insulin resistance.

High dietary fibre in almonds can also increase gastric distension, viscosity of gastrointestinal tract, and slower absorption of macronutrients, including slowing the absorption of carbohydrates and the level of postprandial blood glucose [6]. High dietary fibre has been reported to promote the growth of SCFAs producing bacteria, increasing the production of SCFAs and promoting GLP-1 secretion [14].

In the study by Zhao et al. [48], it was found that the presence of greater diversity and abundance of fibre-promoting SCFA producers improved glycated haemoglobin levels in patients with type 2 diabetes through the production of glucagon-like peptide-1. The dietary fibre undergoes fermentation by colonic microbiota to produce SCFAs, including propionic, acetic, and butyric acid, which have significant effects on host physiology [49]. The SCFAs are useful in regulating the metabolic and immune system of the host as well as in cell proliferation [50]. However, low dietary fibre intake can cause microbiota dysbiosis, reduction in SCFAs production, and lead to the utilisation of less favourable substrates, such as proteins and fat [50,51]. The lipopolysaccharides resulting from the use of a high-fat diet can elicit an inflammatory response and contribute to the development of insulin resistance and type 2 diabetes [51].

Which is why they want it pastorized I'm so disappointed in raw vegans with this one political issue that we could not get the almonds on pasturized I'm very disappointed

This was our one job